false premises

inductive：归纳 ·strong or weak的结论

1、ambiguity

2、relevance

3、逻辑跳跃

deductive：演绎~形式~valid or invalid

前题错了得出错误的结论，但reasoning没问题

（valid-unsound）

1）命题缪误：

compound propositions：相当于复合句

1、选言

2、肯定后件谬误：涉及必要、充分两个概念，前题条件是否结论的充分必要条件

3、否定前项

2）3段论

1、非法/无效肯定：正正不能得－

2、非法否定：负负不能得＋

3、大项不当周延：大项，小项，中项，周延

4、小项不当周延：在结论里变周延了

5、中项不周延：在大小前提里都不周延

6、4项错误：缺中项或不是词项逻辑，而是谓词逻辑（谓语动词不是be动词）

演绎：算法reasong正确，不考虑premise是否正确

1、propositional ：mingti与命题间的逻辑

1)detachment:肯定前向

2）contrapositive：

主题句的支持细节

主要   

次要

词汇：photosynthesis 光合作用

gregarious爱交际的

frivolous不严肃的，草率的，随便的

bravado逞英雄，假英雄

famished很饿的

ireful愤怒的

garb衣服（正式说法）制服

icons 图标

alopecia秃头症

perusal熟读精读

nocturnal夜行的，夜间活动的

faculties身体和大脑的功能

immaterial无足轻重

erudition博学

displaced流离失所

iota 一点也不

ambivalent矛盾的，不定的

disagreeable讨厌的，令人不快的

unscrupulous寡廉鲜耻的，不择手段的

defraud of 欺诈

snatch away 抢走

trample down 践踏

intergalactic space星际空间

antidote解毒剂，抗毒素

extricate  bai't

一、图表题概述

二、图表题的秘密：阅读大赛真题解析

三、备赛指南

一、图表题概述

1. 主要类型：图标范例

2. 图表的主要来源与文体

3. 考查点与主要类型

1. 主要类型：图表范例

tables: text or numbers in the form of columns 

figures (diagram, graph, chart, drawing, photograph, etc)

(分别举例)

2. 图表的主要来源与文体特点

主要来源：年度报告，权威数据，其他介绍

文体特点：说明文体，官方、正式，

3. 考查点与主要题型

考查点：图表理解、阅读理解（识别、分析、推理），阅读广度、国内外热点的关注度

主要题型：正误判断、选择（正确或错误）、图文匹配

二、图表题的秘密：阅读大赛真题解析

Example 1 （图表已截图，下面是选项）

Which of the following is a CORRECT description of what the chart indicates?

A. Across regions senior positions held by women is approximately in proportion to the businesses with no women in senior management positions, neither of them reaching  50%

B. The chart presents the conflict between the level of female represetnation in senior positions and businesses in general in the two regions: the Developed Asia and Pacific and Latin America. 

C. Both senior positions held by women and the number of businesses with no women in senor management positions point to the highest level of female representiation in Eastern Europe. 

D.  It can be inferred from the chart that there are more businesses in France or Germany than in the USA or Canda who do not hire women for senior management positions. 

Example 2

Choose the INCORRECT statement about the figure. 

A. Among the six negative experiences, the least significant gender differences in age groups are observed for anger. 

B. Feelings of sadness are always significantly more common for women than men, and steadily rise from lower to higher age groups. 

C. Men between 20 and 50 report significantly more stress than do women, with the reverse in higher age groups. 

D. Men show a similar patter to women until the age of 40 with the feeling of worry, and then rise significantly. 

三、备赛指南

1. 答题过程与技巧

答题过程：

• 仔细阅读指令：主题、题目要求
• 浏览图表，捕捉特点、趋势、参与者
• 阅读、排除或选定最易判断的选项
• 比对、确定

答题技巧：

• 合理分配时间
• 捕捉图表关键信息
• 聚焦图文对比
• 排除+确定

2. 备赛

平时积累与训练：

• 英语能力（正式文体的理解、识别信息，提取信息、比对和分析信息）
• 思维训练（观察能力、捕捉特点、趋势，识别共性、识别细节差异）
• 阅读广度（国内外热点，国际组织报告、政府机构报告、企业报告）

Which of the following is an INCORRECT description about the figure?

A. The employment rate is higher for young adults with higher levels of educational attainment than for those with lower levels of educational attainment. 

B. For females, the employment rate without completing high school is more than two times lower compared with the rate for those with a bachelor's or highger degree. 

C. The difference between the employment rates for females and males becomes larger with the increase in educational attainment. 

D. Among young adults, employment rates are higher for males than for females at each level of educational attainment. 

Reading skills and critical reading

什么是批判性阅读？

• 批判性阅读是一种阅读态度，也是一种思考活动；

强调：

• 不被动接受作者的指示、消极地被作者引导，顺承地接受作者的观点，不假思索地接受作者提供的材料。
• 要在理解的基础上进行质疑、批判、吸收，从而对原有的知识进行重构，使我们成为知识和学习的主体，不受他人的摆布。

批判性阅读的宗旨：

• 通过阅读，培养独立思考的能力和勇于创新的意识。

 什么是批判？

• 不盲从，通过独立、理性思考，作出选择；
• 去其糟粕，吸其精华，形成自己的思想。

批判性阅读的必要性：

• 在新媒体时代，批判性阅读可以帮助我们有效筛选信息，客观地评估信息中的个人偏见、多角度地看待问题，形成健全完善的思想观念。

agressive 侵略性的

herbivorous 草食性的

raccoon浣熊

如何对非文学文本进行批判性阅读？

Critical Discourse Analysis （CDA）批判性话语分析

可以从哪些方面对文本进行批判性阅读？

Who is the author?

Is the piece aimed at a particular audience? A neutral audience? Persons who are already sympathetic  to the author's point of view? A hostile audience?

What is the author's thesis? (argument, main point, claim)?

What assumptions does the author make? Do I share them? If not, why not? （assumption 是观点背后更基本的价值观和价值取向）

• Example：We should not legalize recreational drugs. Illegal drugs cause too much street violence and other crimes. 
• Reason: illegal drugs cause violence and other crimes. 
• assupmtion: Public safety is more important than freedom of choice. 

Does the author ever confuse facts with beliefs or opinions?

What appeals does the author make? To reason, to emotions, or to trustworthy?

Example: Martin Luther King "Where do we go from here?"

If you will let me be a preacher just a little bit(appeal to authority) - One night, a juror came to Jesus and he wanted to know what he could do to be saved. Jesus didn't get bogged down in the kind of isolated approach of what he shouldn't do. Jesus didn't say, "Now Nicodemus, you must stop lying." HE didn't say, "Nicodemus, you must stop cheating if you are doing that." He didn't say, "Nicodemus, you must not commit adultery." He didn't say, "Nicodemus, now you must stop drinking liquor if you are doing that excessively." He said something altogether different, because Jesus realized something basic - that if a man will lie, he will steal. And if a man will steal, he will kill. So instead of just getting bogged down in one thing, Jesus looked at him and said, "Nicodemus, you must be born again." (使用类比，美国需要彻底改变，appeal to reason，emotion)

How convincing is the evidence?

(major kinds of evidence include: intuition, personal experience, testimonials, appeals or authorities, personal observations, case examples, research studies, analogies) 可信度由低到高

Are significant objections or counter-evidence adequately discussed?

How is the text organized, and is the organization effective? Are the title, the opening paragraphs, and the concluding paragraphs effective? In what ways?

What is the author's tone? Is is appropriate?

To what extent had the author convinced me? Why?

例文：来自新视野英语

1. Who is the author？

2. Does the author ask me to accept facts or opinions?

3. Is the evidence convincing？（persoanl experience/observations）

 例文2: 

read and question

体裁以说明文和议论文为主，主题宽泛角度多样

针对同一个主题，角度、立场不同但 有 内 部 联 系

比如初赛时关于咖啡主题的read and question 

selfie 自拍照

 非形式谬误/归纳（天生有缺陷）：正确推理可以推出错误结论

1、ambiguity

1）重点：equivocation，语义模糊，如：criminal actions，fine，sexual relations
2）straw man：偷换概念，扭曲

2、presumption

推理逻辑链条没问题，论证的前题（presumption错）

arguing from ignorance:不能证伪

 tu quoque：臭虫论：行为与观点不一致

subjective fallacy：以观点主观而拒绝接受

false dilemma：实际只有一个选择,非黑即白，

slippery slope：滑一步，不一定就会滑第二步。。。语言的排比使用

begging the question：循环论证，结论包含在前提中

post hoc：虚设因果关系C

A slippery slope   D false dilemma

Texas Sharpshooter：可以去寻找相关性数据，忽略不相关数据，如，算命，B

3、relevance

fallacist's fallacy：推理过程错了，结论错，但实际不一定

gambler's fallacy：赌徒谬误，20次正面（连续概率事件，第21次一定是反面（因而判定一定会发生。。。）

naturalistic：因为正常，所有人都这样做（迟到），所以ok

moralistic：某件事或价值主张在理论上是对的，实际生活中也是对的：我骗你没好处

division：因为集合整体有这样的特征，判定个体也具有此特征：中国人保守，我是中国人，所以保守：星象

composition：与division相反，由个体推整体，原子没生命，不等于由原子组成的东西没生命

irrelevant：用与你argue无关的信息支撑观点

1）consequence：不能因为结果是美好的，前题就是对的

2）force：霸王条款

3）pity：博取同情

4）poverty：穷苦百姓认为对的，就是对的

5）wealth: 富人认为是对的，就是对的

6) weak analogy：无效类比：A & B有某种相似性，所以具有所有相同特性：宇宙像个钟表，钟表有个maker，宇宙就有一个maker（上帝）

genetic：极端，gu论证

Ad Homimen

找出文章段落的topic

第一次略读，抓住首尾段落，看完选择题之后精读

要额外注意几篇文章里的交叉信息

saga 一连串的事件

for good 永久的、一劳永逸的

排序题、匹配题

,11. A bandwagon: appeal to popularity

     B  strawman: 错误解读/过渡解读

     C  slippery slope,滚雪球

    D  fine

13. 脑筋急转弯：

14. logical reasoning：理解impractical和except，not always包含的意思,反向思考

28. 中长篇阅读：

summary 比personal 重要，答题时分点a)b)

重点是文章内容

先看题目

准确理解问题

重点段落细读

语言衔接： 连接词与过渡词

       指代衔接

       词汇的替代、重复、省略和同义词

语义连贯： 要点顺序 1.2.3.

       时间顺序

       空间顺序

       逻辑顺序

段落的组织模式：描写 陈述 过程描述 举例列举

分类说明 下定义 对比反衬 因果关系型段落

一  什么是段落

一个段落由多个语句构成，主要包含一个要点。这个要点可以是阐述某个观点、描述某件事、某个过程、某个物体或某个人物

二  段落的语言衔接和语义连贯

1 语言衔接

1）使用连接词和过渡词衔接

常用连接词：and, or

常用过渡词：then, however, in fact, consequently, eventually

常见过渡词语：

表示罗列：first of all, to begin with, first, second, third, finally, for one thing, for another

表示补充：in addition, additionally, moreover, furthermore, besides, apart from

表示时间：when, while, after, before, later, during, last, eventually, next, previously

表示举例：once, illustration, including, such as, (for) instance, (for) example

表示对比：however, but, althoug, instead, in contrast, in spite of, even though, on the oter hand, rather than, unlike, still

表示类比：in the same way, similarly, likewise, (just) as, (just) like

表示因果：as a result, therefore, lead to, cause, if...then, accordingly, since, because(of)

2）使用指代衔接 

3）使用词汇的替代、重复、省略和同义词等衔接

2. 语义连贯

1）要点顺序（order of ideas）

2）时间顺序（chronological order)

3）空间顺序（spatial order)

4）逻辑顺序（logical order)

三  段落的组织模式

1. 描写型段落

2. 陈述型段落

3.过程描述型段落（时间顺序）

4.列举/举例型段落

5.分类说明型段落

6.下定义型段落

7.对比/反衬型段落

第一段的段尾句是主题句，这种情况最常见

不一定每一段都有主题ju

1.6 

一  图表题概述

1. 主要类型：图表范例

Tables  表格

Figures  图

diagram, graph, chart, drawing, photograph

 2. 图标的主要来源与文体特点

主要来源：联合国等机构的年度报告；国家统计局发布的权威数据

文体特点：说明文体、官方

3. 考查点与主要题型

考查点：

图表理解

阅读理解：识别、分析、推理

阅读广度、国内外热点的关注度

主要题型：

正误判断

选择（正确或错误）

图文匹配

二 真题

三 备赛指南

 1. 答题过程与技巧

阅读directions

浏览图表，捕捉特点趋势

阅读、排除或选定最易判断的选项

比对、确定