uneuqivocally

acquisite

主题句

从语句到段落

Vague though its category.it is without doubt an essay

content: comprenhension+critical thinking

60%

question 1：原文包括3个要点

question 2：2 dangers at least

quesiton 3：candidate's comment

（可以用原文的words or phrase，但不要整句照搬）

2016 final：How We Think 

sample 1：language & organization 较差，从大赛整体来看 around average

阅读大赛更看重对文本的理解（主要话题、方向理解无误），标点、语法、句法错误引起的句不达义以及衔接、连贯等问题 of secondary importance （但，如果能注意，尽量注意，有印象分）

述：3段   评：1段

sample 2: 非常准确理解了文本，要点清晰

语言流畅，用词句式娴熟多样，3段3个层次清晰

1、围绕问题直接进入理解后的表述

2、逻辑严密

3、段1：针对问题1；段2：针对问题2（根据问题决定段落数）

4、dangers：第二问~主题句概括的很好

5、candidate's comment: 第3问~将杜威的观点和自己熟悉的学*、生活等例子结合

2019 final：冯友兰的中国哲学简史译本

文本长，作文字数选择200而不是300

3个问题：前2个~以作文形式回答问题（紧扣原文的理解）；第3个问题：your comment（base the answer on the texts，而不是天马行空）

sample 1：中等水平

第三段：对冯友兰哲学目的和观点评论，有自己的观点和critical thinking的表现，意思整体逻辑基本可以，但语言问题较多（对文本理解还不错）

sample 2：model

遗憾：讲述自己观点时，太局限于文本，没有适当的拓展（注意：适当）

段1：围绕第一问，交代了背景，给出了要点，引出下文（看开头很成功）；句式娴熟，词汇运用灵活

段2：自然过渡到第2问，理解准确，要点表达清晰，使用语篇连接词

段3：注意审题：基于原文也需要跳出原文

concede to：不准确(勉强同意？）

Problems & tips

1、阅读大赛写作的重点：通过写作考察阅读理解能力：如果理解不准确，即使表达很好，也有脱题之嫌，特别注意！！！）

2、注意内容的详略得当：对文本的理解占大篇幅，自己的观点小部分，通常在最后一段

3、重点的段落和内容应多揣摩

4、注意Read and Create的步骤：最后一步才是自己的comment

如何进行有效论证argument

1.deductive(演绎推理)

• conclusion necessarily follows from premises
• 只针对论证的过程并不针对结果，当前提是真的且有效时，deductive就是sound且valid；当前提假推断逻辑结构有效则valid但unsound；
• valid 是 sound 的前提，invalid一定unsound
• 从论证的前提推理结果 from the general to the specific

1）deductive argument——propositional logic

the law of detachment

• P->Q       if P    then Q

[陈述：“如果我杯子碎了，那我就不能喝水”接着我把杯子打碎了，因为杯子碎了为真，得出结论我不能喝水。]

the law of contrapositive

• P->Q        if !Q      then  !P

[陈述：“如果狗会说话，狗就会唱歌”接着我抓来一条狗，发现它不会唱歌，得出结论它不会说话]

the hypothetical syllogism

• P->Q       Q->R      P->R

2)deductive argument——categorical logic

（some/every/no）S is P

主项和谓项之间是is

3）deductive argument——predicate logic

2.inductive（归纳推理）

• conclusion probably follows from premises
• 归纳推理只涉及结果的可能性，可能性高则strong，可能性低则weak；
• relies on evidence，it's crucial to exam the reliability of all premises!

what make the inductive argument weak？

①overgeneralization（过度泛化）

②anomalies（使用个例论证自己的断言）

③false causality(错误的因果关系)

how to make a valid and sound argument?

1. formal(deductive)

propositional fallacies——affirming a disjunct(选言命题)

一个人要成功就一定有才能或者有社会关系->小明成功了->小明有才能,小明没有社会关系

——affirming the consequent

考试作弊就可以通过考试->小明通过考试了->小明考试作弊

——denying the antecedent

如果你作弊就能通过考试->你没作弊->你不能通过考试

illicit affirmative

all movie stars are rich->some rich people are mean->therefore, some movie stars are not mean.

illicit negative

no birds are dogs->no dogs can fly->therefore, all birds can fly.

illicit major

all movie stars are rich people->no beggars are movie stars->therefore, no rich people are beggars

illicit minor

all movie stars are famous people->all movie stars are rich people->therefore, all rich people are famous people

undistributed middle

all movie stars are rich people->all ceos are rich people->therefore.all movie stars are ceos

four terms

nothing is better than true love->money is better than nothing->therefore, money is better than true love.

篇章中的推理

一推理题概述

01什么是推理？

02主要题型示例及考查点

二篇章推理中的技巧：阅读大赛真题解析

三备赛指南

01答题过程与技巧

02备赛

informal logical fallacies

fallacy of equivocation（句子或单词含有多重含义）

criminal actions are illegal->all murder trials are ciminal actions->therefore, all murder trails are illegal.

the sign said"fine for parking here"->i'm fine->therefore, i park here.

straw man fallacy

fallacies of presumption——false dilemma(虚假的两难处境)

——slippery slope(滑坡谬误)

——begging the qestion(结论包含在前提中)

god exst.

how do you know?

coz the bible says so.

why should i trust the bible?

because it is the words of god!

——no true scotsman

no scotsman puts sugar on his porridge.

my scottish friend angus likes sugar with his porridge.

okay, but no true scotsman puts sugar on his porridge

——post hoc（因果关系）

——texas sharpshooter（刻意寻找与结果有相关的例子）

伪神枪手在弹孔密集的地方画靶子

guilt by association 道德连坐

段落的语言衔接和语义连贯

1使用连接词与过渡词衔接

2使用指示代词衔接

3使用词汇的替代、重复、省略和同义词的衔接

apathy   listlessness没有精神 无力

各种衔接手段

语义连贯

1要点顺序 第一第二第三

2时间顺序chronological order 事情发展的时间

3空间顺序 上中下 里面到外面 由表及里

4.逻辑顺序 logical order 

段落的组织模式

描写型 文学性

陈述型 陈述事实

过程描述型 一般是时间顺序

列举、举例型

分类说明型段落

下定义型

对比、反衬型

因果关系型

混合型

词义猜测的能力

篇章中的推理

推理题概述

已有信息到未知信息

演绎归纳

阅读策略

reading as a skill

阅读是一种技能，需要有计划有方法地大量训练。

reading sub-skill

宏观：

1.带着阅读目的进行英语阅读（有意地设立阅读目的）

2.通过标题关键词、文章特点和自己的背景知识对文章内容进行预测（将被动阅读变成主动积极地阅读）

3.略读，对文章进行整体把握

4.查读，扫描文章寻找特定细节

5.语块阅读，根据语义把一句话分解成不同的语块进行理解

6.理解文章的结构和体裁

7.判断作者的写作意图

微观

1.理解某段话的基本结构

2.注意连接手段、理清逻辑

3.猜测生词

4.推断言外之意

5.调用背景知识

6.主动提问，与作者对话，形成阅读期待

7.评价作者的态度

8.了解语言风格（作者的工作、假象的读者、文章体裁、作者态度都会影响）

9.整合文章中相关而分散的信息

批判性阅读

去其糟粕，取其精华，做出选择

文学作品的批判性阅读

1.心理活动视角

2.阶级矛盾视角

3.女性视角

4.读者自身阅历的视角

5.二元对立关系视角（结构）

6.解构主义视角

7.后殖民主义视角

8.新批评主义视角

文学解读只要求自圆其说，不同的解读站在不同的视角非相互矛盾。

非文学批判式阅读

把作者的事实和观点区分开来（facts&belief）

篇章中的推理

一、推理题概述

二、篇章推理中的技巧：阅读大赛真题解析

三、备赛指南

一、推理题概述

1. 什么是推理？

2. 主要题型示例及考查点

1. 什么是推理？

广义：All mental activities based on certain logic

狭义：1. What is said----what is unsaid 

          2. Logical reasoing: logic (逻辑推理)

2. 主要题型示例及考查点

Which of the following details is probably coming next?

Which of the following is (in)correct?

Which of the following statements would the author agree with?

Which of the following best fits . . . in the passage?

What can we know about the example of . . . according to the passage?

What can be inferred from the passage?

Which of the following . . . best matches . . . ?

考查点：

理解、辨别、分析、比对已知信息，然后进行判断或推断；

上下句、上下段、全文结构

选项中的语言知识点

二、篇章推理中的技巧：阅读大赛真题解析

类型一：上下句（文）义理解

Which of the following details for Headlines A-D is Least probably coming next?

A. For French Teens, Smoking Still Has More Allure Than Stigma 

A) French teens smoke at a much lower rate than their American counterparts. 

B. Police Seek Killer in Queens; Community Demands Justice

B) New York police are tracking down the gunman who shot the leader of a mosque.

C. Federal State of Emergency over Lead-laced Water Ends in Flint, Minch. 

C) The city continues to navigate a public health crisis caused by lead-laced water. 

D. Ryan Lochte and 3 other U.S. Swimmers Robbed at Gunpoint in Rio

D) Lochtes's taxi was stopped by robbers, and luckily no swimmers were hurt. 

类型二：全篇文义理解

There was a strange stillness. The birds, for example, where had they gone? Many people spoke of them, puzzled and disturbed. The feeding stations in the backyards were deserted. The few birds seen anywhere were moribund; they trembled violently and could not fly. It was a spring without voices. On the mornings that had once throbbed with the dawn chorus of robins, catbirds, doves, jays, wrens, and scores of other bird voices there was now no sound; only silence lay over the fields and woods and marsh. 

Which of the following BEST describes the main purpose of the text?

A. It sets the scene for a poignant, tragic or horrifying ghost story. 

B. It describes the serene beauty of nature when humans are not interfering. 

C. It presents a dramatic change in nature which implies future disasters. 

D. It depicts a true world of wild life where the law of the jungle works. 

解题思路：关键词、全文意思、情感倾向、选项语义、排除、比对、判断

Directions: REad the text and decide whether the statements are True or False according to the text. 

Questions define tasks, express problems, and delineate issues. They drive thinking forward. Answers, on the other hand, often signal a full stop in thought. Only when an answer generates further questions does thought continue as inquiry. A mind with no questions is a mind that is not intellectually alive. No questions (asked) equals no understanding (achieved). Superficial questions equal superficial understanding, unclear quesitons equal unclear understandign. If your mind is not actively generating questions, you are not engaged in susbtantial learning. 

1. The main purpose of the text is to define "questions". (F)

It can be inferred that a mind filled with questions will surely be engaged in substantial learning. (F)

类型三：全文内容及篇章结构

__________ In a similar way, some desert plants can balloon and shrink depending on the availability of water. When it rains in the desert, these plants can increase as much as 50% through water absorption. In drought periods, these desert sponges gradually shrink as they use their internal water to help them survive. 

Which of the following most probably comes at the beginning of the text?

 A. In boreal forests many trees have needle-like leaves which shape loses less water and sheds snow more easily than broad leaves. 

B. Seldom do we see dark-clored plants indeserts. Many have light-colored spines, hairs, or leaves reflecting heat and trapping moisture. 

C. Imagine an accordion. When you pull it apart, it expands and pulls in air. Push it together and the air is forced out, creating music. 

D. An umbrella is an umbrella when it is carried in the rain. When on a sunny day it is to shield its user from the sun, it is called a "parasol".

解题思路：关键词，全文组织，选项语义，比对

排除相似项，代入原文比对，审视细节

With E-book sales increasing by more than 300% for the second year, publishers delivering new revenue streams through E-book Apps, and academic publishers long having derived some 90% of their revenue online, it is a travesty to describe all this as the publishing world being "in denial" about digital. 

What is the main idea of this text?

A. Publishers are making profits from E-book sales. 

B. Not all publishers are threatened by digital storms. 

C. E-books become a main source of revenue for publishers. 

D. Traditional publishing industry is dying out.

三、备赛指南

1.  答题过程与技巧

仔细阅读题干，搞清设问（锁定上下句，再看全文）

浏览原文，了解文意，确定关键词（关键词，篇章组织）

排除或选定最易判断的选项（排除错误项、相似项）

代入原文，比对，确定答案（代入原文，进行比对）

2. 平时的积累与训练

英语能力（词汇、篇章结构、连接词）

思维训练（逻辑思维，分析，比对，排除法）

阅读广度（博览，阅读习惯、长短文阅读）

识别作者的目的、态度和语气

一、赛题概述

二、阅读大赛真题解析

三、备赛指南

一、赛题概述

1. 如何理解作者的目的、态度和语气？

目的：

What is the purpose of the text/passage/paragraph/example/quote . . .

To agrue/introduce/illustrate/provoke/arouse . . .

To explain/illustrate/provide evidence . . . 

To reinforce/summarizze/clarify . . .

态度：

positive, confident, respectful, frank ,friendly . . .（+／-）

cautious; sarcastic; determined . . . 

neutral; indiffernet; unemotional . . .

语气：excited; interested; ironic; humorous; angry; boastful; doubtful;anxious; envious; insulting . . . 

2. 主要题型示例及考查点：

What is the main purpose of . . .?

What is the author's attitude towards . . .?

Which of the following best describes the tone of . . .?

考查点：逻辑推理能力；捕捉言外之意的能力；判断认知和情感倾向的能力

二、阅读大赛真题解析

1. 识别作者的目的

The value of fairy tales lies not in a bried literay escape from reality, but in the gift of hope that goodness truly is more powerful than evil and that even the darkest reality can lead to a happily ever after. Do not take that gift of hope lightly. It has the power to conquer despair in the midst of sorrow, to light the darkness in the vallleys of life, to whisper "One more time" in the face of failure. 

What is the main purpose of this text?

 A. To provide a definition of fairy tales by examples. 

B. To illustrate the importance of hope with fairy tales. 

C. To expound the importance of reading fairy tales. 

D. To inspire people to cling to hope as fairy tales imply. 

解题思路：正确审题，把我文本的核心话题，对比+排除

Every  intelligence has to be taught. A human brain, which is genetically primed to categorize things, still needs to see a dozen examples before it can distinguish between cats and dogs. That's even more true for artificial minds. Even the best-programed computer has to play at least a thousand games of chess before it gets good. Part of the AI (Artificial Intelligence) breakthrough lies in the incredible avalanche of collected data about our world, which provides the schooling tha AI needs. Massive databases, self-tracking, web cookies, online foootprints, terabytes of storage, decades of search results, Wikipedia, and the entire digital universe became the teachers making AI smart. 

The example of a human brain is used to illustrate that artificial intelligence is taught by teachers in the same way that students are taught at schoo. True/False

2. 识别作者的态度

“I support the recent steps taken by the life sciences sector to increase people's understanding of why and how animals are used in research, and for the ongoing effort to develp alternatives to the use of animals, where possible.”

The speakr's general attitude towards animal testing is positive. True or False?

思路：细读原文，排除干扰

3. 识别作者的语气

 . . . and how human he was, that whereas other men chained their "niggers" hand and foot both, he only put fetters on the feet, and left Tom the use of his hands, as long as he behaved well; and sighed to think how ungrateful human nature was, so that there was even room to doubt whether Tom appreciated his mercies. He had been taken in so by "niggers" whom he had favored; but still he was astonished to consider how good-natured he yet remained!

The tone of the text could be best be describled as ______

A. a praise 

B. a sarcasm

C. an accusation

D. an appreciation 

三、备赛指南

仔细阅读题干和选项

带着问题阅读原文

抓住原文的主题大意、情感倾向

对比、确定

faddist n. 好新奇的人；趋于时尚者

pin-up

claim, premises, conclusion

deductive, inductive

1\complex statements as claims

non-arguments

2\emotioal discourse: raise voice情绪化表达

3\fictions: no truth value,论据虚构

4\conditional statements条件句

5\explanations：rhetorical，已知事实，deductive，演绎

burden of proof：举证责任